Diversity of Indonesian Lebaran dishes: from history to recent business perspectives

Abstract

Eid al-Fitr is one of the Islamic holidays celebrated by Muslims all over the world, including in Indonesia (Eid al-Fitr is popularly known as lebaran in Indonesia). Indonesia has long been recognized as a multicultural country with many cultural traditions, such as culinary traditions associated with particular religious holidays. This article aims to explore around 165 Indonesian Lebaran Dishes (ILDs) discussed from different points of view such as history, cultural traditions, geographical distribution, health and economic benefits of the preparation ILDs. Briefly, the research is a literature study in which data were collected from online and offline sources, triangulated with mini-interview (with open ended questions) before synthesized into a manuscript. The result of research was family dining banquets and nationwide tradition of Halal bi-halal often includes several ubiquitous ILDs such as ketupat, opor ayam, and lontong. Meanwhile, ILDs such as sie reuboh, nasi tutug oncom, and nasi jaha are usually served in makmeugang (Aceh), ngabotram (West Java), and binarundak (Gorontalo and North Sulawesi) traditions during lebaran, respectively. In the term of diversity, the 165 ILDs are discovered and widely distributed in 26 provinces, exhibiting a confluence of the Islamic faith with local and foreign culinary traditions. The ILDs are dominated by rice cakes (31 dishes), curries (26 dishes), stews (18 dishes), and cookies (18 dishes)—for example, ketupat kandangan (South Kalimantan), lontong sayur (West Sumatra), semur daging (Jakarta), and kue semprit (Nationwide), respectively. Additionally, IDLs offer a diverse array of nutritional components, including carbohydrates, fibers, proteins, and fats, while also exhibiting specific functional properties. For example, fermented foods like tape ketan (Nationalwide) have been shown to enhance digestion by introducing probiotic microbes into digestive system. Notably, the ILDs industry holds significant economic prospect as contributing up to US$ 348 billion to the national revenue by 2023, with an annual growth rate of 20–30%.This high profitable business can further socio-culturally facilitate the promotion of particular specialties to other people in different regions, enabling a cross-cultural exchange between regions.

Introduction

Indonesia is the largest archipelagic country in the world with a population of more than 250 million people from more than 1300 different ethnic groups distributed in 38 official provinces, which makes this country culturally diverse [1]. The country is also the world’s most populous Muslim-majority country with nearly 236 million people identified as Muslim (about 12.7% of the total global Muslim population of around 2 billion) [2]. The presence of Islam in Indonesia does not hinder any interaction and acculturation with local cultures as those have been commenced since the initial contact of both parties (Muslim and native people). The acculturations created a newly synthesized culture—Indonesian-Muslim culture—which has long been inherited over centuries, across regions and generations. One of which is the Indonesian-Muslim cuisine which combines the local culinary tradition, foreign cuisine influences, and also the principles of Islamic dietary law (halal) [3].

Many holidays are celebrated in Islam; Eid al-Fitr is one such holiday, which is popularly known as Lebaran in Indonesia [4]. During this celebration, Muslims usually spend their leisure time with family and friends, at home, and are also involved in all kinds of celebrations in the neighborhood [5]. The Eid al-Fitr celebrations may culturally differ by country and region, creating many diverse unique traditions across Muslim countries [6]. In Indonesia, the Eid traditions culturally differ from those in other countries, especially from their Middle Eastern counterparts (as the birthplace of Islam) [5, 6]. Indonesian Eid traditions are also one of Indonesian-Muslim cultures, integrating Islamic religious values and local cultures which have long culturally been preserved and interpreted in various locally-organized celebrations. Even, the traditions have long influenced the Indonesian society, especially in the term of nation unity [7, 8].

Meanwhile, the Eid al-Fitr celebrations are also always identical with the preparation and serving of Indonesian-Muslim foods in this most sacred holiday in the Islamic tradition [4]. Every Muslim, including in Indonesia, is encouraged to cook and serve the finest and most scrumptious dishes during the Eid which are nutritiously required by the body after fasting month [4, 9]. Some dishes such as ketupat, lontong, and opor ayam were specifically developed for the Eid celebration, which are ubiquitously served in Indonesia during the holiday, making them the national Eid al-Fitr dishes [4]. Furthermore, the selected traditional dishes are usually served on the dining table during lebaran, to show Islam’s appreciation and tolerance to local culinary traditions [3, 4]. Moreover, in the modern era, the Eid can also impact on the nation’s economic condition, especially related to recent preparation foods during lebaran [10]. In addition, lebaran has long demographically shifted a number of Indonesian populations during the holiday (mudik tradition) which is correlated to the monetary flow from industrialized areas to rural areas [10,11,12].

This article is a literature review exploring the diversity of around 165 Indonesian Lebaran Dishes (ILDs) from all regions across the country. All aspects related to ILDs were discussed from the historical point of view, associated Eid al-Fitr traditions, and the geographical distribution of dishes. Furthermore, the economic aspects and the health effects of ILDs consumption were elucidated to highlight the position of ILDs.

Methods

This literature review was methodologically written following to Prastowo [3], with several modifications. Initially, the entire data from both sources (online and offline sources) were collected from books, online documents, and academic journals; using keywords related to ILDs in Boolean expression logics. Keywords were grouped and selected according to sub-themes of the article such as the history of lebaran (for example: “history of Islam in Indonesia”, “history of lebaran in Indonesia”, “history of ketupat”, etc.), traditional Eid feasts associated with the ILDs preparation (for example: “lebaran traditions in Indonesia”, “lebaran traditions in East Java”, ”Foods usually involved in Ater-Ater tradition”,”Foods usually served in Makmeugang tradition”, etc.), geographic distribution (for example: “Indonesian food served during lebaran”, “ILDs usually served in South Sumatra”, “ILDs usually served in Central Java”, “Dutch cuisine influences in ILDs”, “ILDs heavily influenced by Chinese cuisine”, etc.), health effects of ILDs consumption (for example: “human physiology after fasting month”, “the nutritional value of ketupat”, “the nutritional value of ILDs”, “effect of fermented foods consumption after lebaran”, etc.) and business aspects (for example: “ILDs offered by catering industries during lebaran”, “the sales of ILDs during lebaran”, etc.).

In this study, books include cookbooks, recipe books, as well as, other books (history, food science, nutrition, physiology, culture and gastronomy books). Reports, statistical data, religious laws, menus offered by catering industries, and data related to ILDs (recipes, history, cultural significance, food nutrition, business aspects and also recent development of ILDs) were also collected from online websites and social media. In this study, articles from reputable international (Scimago indexing: Q1 – Q3) and national journals (indexed in SINTA and Crossref database) as well as international conference proceedings (indexed in Scimago database) were selected and used as the literature source.

The data were subsequently tabulated in tables, maps (distributions of ILDs and lebaran traditions involving ILDs serving) and the figures section (photographs of ILDs and lebaran traditions). After the data tabulated, a series of discussions were organized which involved the entire members of research team. With the support of literature sources, the tabulated data were analyzed to synthesize several analyses and hypotheses in each sub-themes (history of lebaran, traditional Eid feasts associated with the ILDs preparation, geographic distribution of ILDs, health effects of ILDs consumption and business aspects of ILDs) and subsequently constructed into a temporary draft of manuscript. To confirm and triangulate the data and draft, the research team discussed and consulted them with experts related to ILDs that are usually served during the Eid al-Fitr. The questions were only specifically addressed to confirm dubitative data and analyses in the draft. A series of revisions were conducted afterward, until the final form of manuscript was reached and eligible to publish.

Results and discussion

History of Lebaran—the Indonesian version of Eid al-Fitr

Islam has been introduced in, and gradually spread throughout, the Indonesian archipelago since the thirteenth century AD, through various economic and cultural activities. This new religion has subsequently been acculturated with local cultures, creating a new distinctive identity inherited over centuries, which differ from the previous religious dominance (Hindu-Buddhist) and also its Middle Eastern counterpart [4]. Acculturation can be widely seen in many Indonesian traditions, including unique traditions during Islamic holidays. Eid al-Fitr is one such Islamic holiday. On this day, Muslims from around the world collectively go and gather in an open space or mosque to perform the Eid prayers (Salat al-Eid), in the morning [13]. After the prayers, they celebrate the feast by eating together, decorating the house, and having leisure time with family and friends, at home [4, 5]. A sort of selected and fine meal is usually served during the holiday. For instance, in Middle Eastern countries, the dishes like makboosh, shawarma, baklava, kebab, hummus, saltah, etc. are served in family gatherings during the Eid al-Fitr [5].

In Indonesia, Eid al-Fitr is popularly known as Lebaran. The word Lebaran comes from the Javanese word Lebar, which means "finished", as Eid al-Fitr/Lebaran remarks the end of the one-month-long fasting tradition of Ramadhan and the commencement of the Shawwal month. The Indonesian version of Eid al-Fitr is quite different from the traditions in other countries, as lebaran also emphasizes the attainment of personal purity [4]. This tradition was first introduced by Sunan Bonang, one of the members of Wali Sanga (nine Javanese Islamic saints), in the north coastal area of Java, during the Islamic Demak Sultanate era (fifteenth century A.D.); people are requested to seek an apology and give forgiveness to others to perfect the quality of fasting observance during Ramadhan. In Java, the tradition is popularly considered as sungkeman (from the Javanese word sungkem, which means “handshake”) or pangapuran (from the Javanese word ngapura or Arabic word ghafura, both meaning “forgiveness”) [4, 14, 15].

Furthermore, this religious tradition influences the culinary tradition, as some dishes, like ketupat and opor ayam, were specifically created for the Indonesian version of Eid al-Fitr. In circa fifteenth–sixteenth century A.D., another Javanese Islamic saint, Sunan Kalijaga, introduced the creation of a rice cake dish, which is famously known as ketupat [4]. However, the rice cake dishes are believed to have been present before the arrival of Islam in the South East Asian archipelago, which has a long historical relationship to the cultivation of rice in the region. Rice and glutinous rice have been cultivated in the Mekong river basin (the original homeland of Austronesian people) 5000–6000 years ago, and some rice cooking techniques have also been developed in the region [16]. The crops were subsequently spread southward, by Proto and Deutro-Malay people (Austronesian-speaking people), to maritime South East Asia [16, 17]. People in Sumatra, Kalimantan, the Malaysian peninsula, and Sulawesi have long-cooked rice and glutinous rice inside a bamboo tube, popularly known as lemang/lomang, which is also a specialty during the Eid al-Fitr feast (Table 1) [17]. Another instance is puso and tipat, which originated from the Philippines and Bali, respectively, which were historically recorded, in many sources, to have been served since the tenth century AD [4, 18]. Although both are quite similar to ketupat in general, they share a shape and waving pattern, which is different from ketupat. It is hypothesized that rice cake-like dishes have been present long before the arrival of Islam in South East Asia (including in Indonesia); however, it was probably Sunan Kalijaga who initially associated some Islamic philosophical meanings to the dish (ketupat) [4]. The immersion of Islamic teachings into Javanese philosophy as conducted by Sunan Kalijaga, in the case of ketupat, was an effective method in introducing Islam to native Javanese since the Javanese people usually utilize particular symbols in understanding the life, even until nowadays. Islamic teachings in the form of symbols are easier to understand by Javanese rather than a more straightly and strictly Islamic teachings as taught in the Middle Eastern counterparts [4, 6, 8, 14]. In Javanese, ketupat is usually known as kupat—a portmanteau of the two words ngaKU (to acknowledge) and lePAT (wrongdoings). Ketupat is made of rice or glutinous rice wrapped in a container of woven coconut leaf and designed in a thick diamond-like shape with four sides. The four sides are philosophically interpreted as four main activities (laku papat) that Muslims should observe after the fasting month of Ramadhan, namely, lebaran (meaning “to finish atrocious habits as used to be done in the past”), luberan (meaning “to enrich the heart and soul with the abundant righteousness”), leburan (meaning “to integrate the Islamic values into the daily life”) and laburan (meaning “to purify the heart and soul by doing the righteousness”); these activities comprehensively emphasize the completion of the fasting month with an abundance in forgiveness and omittance of all resentments, from the depth of hearth, to obtain an improved level of purity and righteousness. The primary objective of the dish creation was a religio-cultural education that people can affirmatively apply these philosophical teachings in daily life by consuming this dish [4, 7, 8]. Another version of ketupat is lontong (rice cake wrapped in a cylindrical-shaped container of the banana leaf), which is also commonly served during the Eid al-Fitr as a ketupat substitute [4].

Table 1 Indonesian Lebaran Dishes (ILDs)

Meanwhile, the consumption of ketupat is associated with the serving of opor ayam (Javanese-styled chicken curry), a Javanese adaptation of Indian butter chicken, or kari ayam Melayu (Malay-styled chicken curry). The utilization of coconut milk in Javanese dishes (including in opor ayam) has been introduced in the fifteenth century A.D. to develop a newly distinctive culinary identity (Javanese Muslim cuisine) that differs from the indigenous Javanese Hindu foods [3, 19]. The application of Islamic dietary law (halal) had also been made applicable for all Muslim citizens in some Islamic realms in Java, which strictly prohibits the consumption of pork, blood, carrion, and other meats forbidden (haram) under the Islamic dietary law (like snakes, monkeys, dogs, cats, bears, etc.) [3, 20]. Katupat, lontong, and opor ayam are usually served in family dining banquets after the Eid al-Fitr prayers and the apologizing-forgiving ritual during the Eid al-Fitr period in almost regions of Indonesia (Figs. 1A–C, 2, 3A). After more than 500 years since its initial introduction, the lebaran has surpassed the course of periods which enriches its tradition with myriad culinary influences [15].

Fig. 1

ketupat (nationwide) (A) [taken from: https://www.freeimages.com/photo/ketupat-1325785], lontong (nationwide) (B) [taken from: https://www.wordpressmu-1122769-3933803.cloudwaysapps.com/7-langkah-membuat-lontong-enak-dan-empuk/], opor ayam (nationwide) (C) [taken from: https://alchetron.com/Opor-ayam], kaastengel (nationwide) (D) [taken from: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/362610207471747798/visualsearch/?x=16&y=16&w=532&h=271&cropSource=6&surfaceType=flashlight], nastar (nationwide) (E) [taken from: https://www.sweetrip.id/kuliner/resep-nastar-premium/], kue makmur (Riau) (F) [taken from: https://dapurkotasinga.blogspot.com/2015/11/kuih-makmur.html], ayam gagape (South Sulawesi) (G) [taken from: https://sajiansedap.grid.id/read/10761139/ayam-gagape-khas-makassar-olahan-ayam-berkuah-dengan-cita-rasa-nendang], pacri nanas (West Kalimantan) (H) [taken from: https://gencil.news/kuliner/cara-membuat-pacri-nanas/], sie reuboh (Aceh) (I) [taken from: https://sweetrip.id/kuliner/resep-sie-reuboh/], nasi jaha (Gorontalo) (J) [taken from: https://www.tasteatlas.com/nasi-jaha], gulai taboh (Lampung) (K) [taken from: https://carabuatresep.blogspot.com/2016/04/cara-membuat-gulai-taboh-dalom-khas-lampung.html], mie goreng (nationwide) (L) [taken from: https://imgur.com/mie-goreng-homemade-OYYIncT], lapis Surabaya (East Java) (M) [taken from: https://www.sidechef.com/recipes/8692/Lapis_Surabaya], pindang bandeng Betawi (Jakarta) (N) [taken from: https://cookpad.com/id/resep/15872072-pindang-bandeng-betawi], ketupat kandangan (South Kalimantan) (O) [taken from: https://cookpad.com/id/resep/14679053-ketupat-kandangan-khas-kalimantan-selatan], tape ketan (nationwide) (P) [taken from: https://www.rumahmesin.com/cara-membuat-tape-ketan/]

Fig. 2

Distribution of Indonesian Lebaran Dishes. The figure was fabricated by authors

Fig. 3

Family Dinning Banquet (nationwide) (A) [taken from: https://jejakpiknik.com/lebaran-di-perantauan/], halal bi-halal (nationwide) (B) [taken from: https://www.rumah-muslimin.com/2018/05/hukum-tradisi-halal-bi-halal-di-hari.html], baraan (Riau) (C) [taken from: https://www.riau24.com/berita/baca/1651690816-tradisi-barak-an-hari-raya-idul-fitri-di-desa-simpang-ayam-berlangsung-selama-4-hari], lebaran ketupat (Central and East Java) (D) [taken from: https://www.viva.co.id/indepth/sorot/928110-jejak-tradisi-lebaran-ketupat-tanah-jawa], ater-ater (East Java) (E) [taken from: https://www.lontarmadura.com/ter-ater-sebagai-pengamalan-ajaran-agama/], makan patita (Maluku Islands) (F) [taken from: https://1001indonesia.net/makan-patita-menguatkan-semangat-persatuan-dengan-makan-bersama/], makmeugang (Aceh) (G) [taken from: https://www.regional.kompas.com/read/2022/04/02/145517478/mengenal-tradisi-meugang-sambut-ramadhan-di-aceh-warisan-di-zaman-sultan], binarundak (Gorontalo) (H) [taken from: https://pariwisataindonesia.id/kuliner/binarundak/], grebeg syawal (Central Java) (I) [taken from: https://www.liputan6.com/photo/read/2548397/keraton-surakarta-gelar-tradisi-grebeg-syawal?page=1], perang topat (West Nusa Tenggara) (J) [taken from https://www.liputan6.com/tv/read/2377100/tawuran-antar-warga-di-jakarta-hingga-tradisi-perang-topat]

Traditions associated with the Indonesian Lebaran dishes

Many students (santri) of wali sanga, who originally came from many regions in Indonesia and graduated from the school (pesantren), brought back these traditions to their homelands, which assisted in the gastronomical spread of ketupat, lontong, and opor ayam throughout Indonesia (Figs. 1A–C,  2; Table 1) [4, 15]. The apologizing-forgiving ritual, during the Eid al-Fitr, (sungkeman/pangapura) has also inspired the creation of the modern national tradition of Halal bi-Halal during which Indonesian Muslims usually visit others (the elderly, family, friends, neighbors, etc.) to seek apology and blessing as well as give forgiveness (Table 2; Figs. 3B,  4) [15]. In a more official version (usually organized by institutions), people (the members of institution) collectively stand up and make a queue, furthermore doing apologizing-forgiving procession to another people who have stood earlier in a line, in the opposite of the former. Once a person has finished doing the procession, the person subsequently stands up and joins the member of the latter line, accepting the apologize from the members of the former (Fig. 3B) [14, 15, 21]. The tradition was initiated in the post-independence era (1948) when the first Indonesian president, Soekarno, invited all Indonesian political and military elites to the presidential palace to attend an event that emphasized the invitees to ask for an apology and give forgiveness to each other to create political harmony amid the chaotic situation. The introduction of this tradition was under the suggestion of KH Abdul Wahab Hasbullah, one of the Indonesian Islamic intellectuals who initially amalgamated the term Halal bi-Halal, which philosophically meant “a progression to make everything halal (in a good condition) by omitting all resentments among individuals”. Although coined in Arabic, this unique tradition is not found in Arabic-speaking countries. This tradition is also popularly known as the Sawalan tradition since it is usually organized in the month of Shawwal [15, 21]. In this annual tradition (Halal bi-Halal or Sawalan), many dishes such as ketupat, lontong, opor ayam, kaastengel (Nationwide; cheese stick cookie), nastar (Nationwide; bite-sized cookie with pineapple jam filling), kue putri salju (Nationwide; crescent-shaped cookie in icing sugar), and other traditional dishes are subsequently served (Table 1; Figs. 1A–E,  2) [4, 15, 21]. Interestingly, before this tradition was popularized, there was a similar tradition that have become a local wisdom in Riau and South Sulawesi, which are locally known as Baraan and Massiara traditions, respectively (Table 2; Figs. 3C,  4) [23, 24]. During this celebration, after the apologizing-forgiving procession, the hosts serve the guests with various traditional meals like ketupat, opor ayam/kari ayam, Melayu, lontong, kue makmur (Riau; sago-based cookie), gulai patin (Riau; Malay-styled shark catfish [Pangasius indicus] curry), burasa (South Sulawesi; rice cake wrapped in banana leaf), ayam gegape (South Sulawes; Makassarese-styled chicken curry), and barongko (South Sulawesi; banana custard wrapped in banana leaf) (Table 1; Figs. 1F and G, 2) [19, 22, 25,26,27]. In addition, the idea of lebaran value of asking a forgiveness to relatives at the homeland has long encouraged the development of mudik tradition, a temporarily demographical shifting of Indonesian people, from municipal regions to rural areas [11, 12, 28]. This annual tradition makes those people gathered with their family or, at least, can have opportunities to taste foods of their homelands as a nostalgic expression [10, 22]. The mudik tradition can also culturally help in introducing the modern foods (for example: brownies (Nationwide), lapis legit (Nationwide; multi-layered cake), kue bolen (Nationwide; phylo pastry with sweetened banana), etc.) as they usually discover in the metropolis life to the rural areas [11, 25, 28]. Consequently, these modern foods recently serve in a number of family dinning banquets and Halal bi-Halal feasts during lebaran [22, 25].

Table 2 Indonesian Lebaran Traditions

Fig. 4

Distribution of Indonesian Eid al-Fitr traditions. The figure was fabricated by authors

In Islamic jurisprudence, it is also desirable (however, not obligatory) to extend the fasting for 6 days in the Shawwal month to improve the level of religiosity, and it is suggested to be done early in the month (after the first day of Shawwal month) [29]. In Java (especially in Central and Eastern Java), there is a cultural tradition usually celebrated by Javanese Muslims on 8 Shawwal every year—a feast to end the 6-day fasting extension—by eating ketupat and other meals including opor ayam, sambal goreng ati (stirred-fried chicken liver and gizzard stewed in chili sauce), sayur jipang (Javanese-styled chayote curry), pindang Kudus (beef stewed in spicy and sour broth), etc. (Table 1; Figs. 1A and C,  2) [4, 22, 30]. This tradition is popularly known as Lebaran Ketupat (Table 2; Figs. 3D,  4) [4]. In East Java, the tradition of Lebaran Ketupat is observed by sharing and delivering ketupat and other meals to others (neighbors); it is popularly known as the Ater-Ater tradition (Table 2; Figs. 3E,  4) [31]. A similar tradition (famously known as Ngejot tradition) is also observed by the minority Balinese Muslims who have conducted meal sharing with their Muslims and even Hindu neighbors, to create religious harmony, for centuries in Bali (Table 2, Fig. 4) [32].

The lebaran tradition is also culturally associated with a collectively public/communal meal custom. In some Indonesian regions, there are eating customs in which people gather in a particular area and have meals together to celebrate special occasions such as holidays, birthdays, commemoration of Independence Day, etc. For example, in Maluku islands, local communities frequently organize a public meal to celebrate holidays, including Eid al-Fitr, in which people from different cultural and religious backgrounds attend the feast. Various traditional meals are served in the event, which is locally known as Makan Patita (Table 2; Figs. 3F, 4). Papeda (sago starch porridge) is a specialty of this public meal, which is consumed with ikan kuah kuning (fish soup spiced with turmeric). In Maluku islands, ketupat is rarely served as the staple food during the Eid al-Fitr; instead, papeda is incorporated into the meal (Table 1; Fig. 2) [33]. Some similar public eating concepts are also practiced in other Indonesian regions. People in West Sumatra, West Java, West Kalimantan, and Bali, for instance, also organize public meals during the Eid al-Fitr (lebaran), which are locally known as Makan Bajamba, Ngabotram, Saprahan, and Ketog Semprong traditions, respectively (Table 2; Fig. 4) [32, 34]. Some dishes commonly served in these traditions are dendeng balado (West Sumatra; beef jerky stewed in chili sauce), gulai cubadak (West Sumatra; Minangkabau-styled young jackfruit curry), nasi tutug oncom (West Java; mixed spicy rice with oncom [fermented pressed cake]), rengginang (West Java; Sundanese-styled puffed rice), pacri nanas (West Kalimantan; spicy pineapple stew), botong buloh (West Kalimantan; Pontianaknese-styled rice cake wrapped in banana leaf), and opor manis pedas Bali (Bali; Balinese-styled sweet and spicy chicken curry) (Table 1; Figs. 1H, 2) [22, 35,36,37,38,39,40]. Furthermore, communal dining customs can sociologically improve the sense of belonging, brotherhood, and togetherness among people living in a certain area [33].

The Eid al-Fitr (lebaran) is not only identical to having meals collectively, but it is also related to the meal preparations behind the annual feast. In the last one to two days of fasting month (Ramadhan), the Indonesian people usually tend to prepare foods for family dining banquet for the Eid period. Not only preparing for lebaran, but they also cook the foods for buka puasa (the breaking of fasting at the dusk, for the last 1–2 days of Ramadhan month). These such food preparations are usually discovered in almost regions across the country (nationwide). They usually cook foods such as ketupat, opor ayam, sambal goreng ati, etc. These food preparations are usually conducted in a collective way, involving the entire members of family which can sociologically improve the unity among the members [4, 22]. In Aceh, people usually prepare meals (including meat-based dishes) on the last day of the fasting month. Two of the most popular meat-based dishes specially prepared for Eid al-Fitr are sie reuboh (Acehnese-styled beef curry) and bebek gulai kurma (duck curry with chopped dates fruit) (Table 1; Figs. 1I;  2). In Aceh, the tradition of preparing meat-based dishes for lebaran is popularly known as the Makmeugang tradition (Table 2; Figs. 3G, 4) [19, 34, 41]. Similar traditions are also found in the Gorontalo (Binarundak tradition) and Mandailing Natal regions of North Sumatra (Mangalomang tradition), where people usually cook nasi jaha (Gorontaloese-styled rice cake cooked in bamboo tube) and lemang/lomang (glutinous rice cake cooked inside bamboo tube), for the Eid al-Fitr feast, respectively (Table 1 and 2; Figs. 1J,  2,  3H,  4) [17, 34]. These dishes are consumed together with family and friends, at home, on the Eid al-Fitr day.

Indonesia has many other unique lebaran traditions, one of which is the Grebeg Syawal tradition in which some dishes are displayed and arranged in a mountain-shaped structure (popularly known as gunungan structure in Java) before being blessed by a priest at the exterior of a grand mosque (Table 2; Fig. 3I; Fig. 4). This event is usually organized on 8 Shawwal every year. The gunungan structures are subsequently paraded around a particular circumstance and are brought to a large square. Later, all kinds of stuff (including dishes) are competitively picked by people as all the objects displayed are believed to have sacred potentials that could deliver fortune, prosperity, and wealth. In the Pekalongan town of Central Java, one of the most prominent carnival components displayed in Grebeg Syawal is getuk lindri (sweetened cassava cake) (Table 1; Fig. 2) [42]. Another quintessence of the unique lebaran tradition is Perang Topat, which is annually organized, in West Nusa Tenggara, as an ethnically eccentric notion of meals sharing by throwing meals toward others (Table 2; Fig. 3J; Fig. 4). The term Perang Topat comes from the words perang meaning “war” and topat meaning “ketupat”. Here, the group of people on the one side throw a bunch of ketupat toward people on the other side who will receive it. This meal war lasts for a particular period until the stock of ketupat of each group is completely exhausted [32].

Distribution of the Indonesia Lebaran dishes

About 165 Indonesian lebaran dishes (ILDs) are distributed in 26 provinces, which are completely recapitulated in Table 1 and Appendix 1, exhibiting enormous culinary influences like Indian, Arabian, Chinese, Polynesian, Western-Europeans, and Indigenous culinary traditions on these dishes. Most of ILDs (125 dishes) are discovered in the provinces in the western and central part of the country (Fig. 2). It is suggested that the majority of Indonesian Muslim demographically live in those areas (western and central part of Indonesia) [1, 3]. The presence of ILDs in the eastern part of Indonesia, mainly Papua Island, is almost absent, in which most of its inhabitants embrace Christianity instead of Islam (Fig. 2) [1]. The absence of ILDs in Central Kalimantan is also caused by a demographic reason (Fig. 2) [1, 3]. Most of native people (Dayak people) who reside in the interior of Kalimantan Island embrace Hindu-Kaharingan belief and Christianity. Furthermore, Dayak people are geographically separated from their Muslim Malay neighbors living in the coastal area of Kalimantan [46]. Interestingly, one ILD (opor manis pedas Bali) is discovered in Bali which is demographically dominated by Hinduism (Fig. 2). It is suggested that the food has been developed by the minority Balinese Muslim as obtaining penetrative influences from their Muslim neighbors (from Muslim communities in the neighbor provinces of East Java and West Nusa Tenggara) [47].

The trace of Indian cuisine is mostly discovered in Sumatra as well as parts of Java, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi in several dishes such as gulai nangka (North Sumatra; young jackfruit curry), gulai taboh (Lampung; vegetable curry), topak lodeh (East Java; Madurese-styled vegetable curry served with ketupat), and ayam gegape (South Sulawesi; Makassarese-styled chicken curry), which are inspired from various Indian curries (Table 1; Fig. 1K; Fig. 2) [19, 22, 48, 52]. The Chinese cuisine influence is mostly found in Eastern Sumatra as well as parts of Java, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi in numerous foods such as bakso (Nationwide; Indonesian-styled meatball), mie goreng/rebus (Nationwide; fried noodle/noodle soup), pempek (South Sumatra; deep-fried fish cake), kue geplak (Jakarta; sweetened glutinous rice cake with icing sugar), and bajabu (South Sulawesi; fish floss), which are inspired from Chinese wanzi (meatball), lamian (noodle dish), ngo hiang (fish cake), tauchi cake (pounded rice cake), and rousong (meat floss), respectively (Table 1; Fig. 1L; Fig. 2) [3, 19, 22, 25, 53, 54]. The Western-European cuisine has also influenced the development of several ILDs such as kue lidah kucing (Nationwide; cat tongue biscuit), lapis Surabaya (East Java; Surabayan-styled layered cake), bistik Solo (Central Java; Javanese-styled beef steak), and kue tat (Bengkulu; Bengcoolenese-styled pineapple pie), which are an adaptation of the Dutch kattentongen (Dutch cat tongue cookie), Dutch spekkoek (Dutch layered cake), Hollandaise biefstuk (Dutch beef steak), and Portuguese pineapple tart, respectively (Table 1; Fig. 1M; Fig. 2) [22, 26, 30, 55, 56]. Moreover, the influence of indigenous culinary tradition on ILDs is widely discovered in numerous dishes such as asam padeh (West Sumatra; meat and fish stewed in spicy and sour broth), pindang Betawi (Jakarta; milkfish [Chanos chanos] stewed in spicy and sour broth), lepet (Central Java; glutinous rice cake wrapped a in cylindrical-shaped container of coconut leaf), nasi sungkui (West Kalimantan; Sanggaunese-styled mixed spicy rice wrapped in sungkui leaf [Peronema cenescence]), leppe'-leppe' (South Sulawesi; glutinous rice cake wrapped in a cylindrical-shaped container of coconut leaf), and manuk beikut (East Nusa Tenggara; chicken cooked with spicy, grated coconut flesh) (Table 1; Fig. 1N; Fig. 2) [26, 27, 39, 57–59]. However, the trace of Arabian and Polynesian cuisine is quite limited; they are only found in kue makmur (Riau; sago-based cookie) and papeda (Maluku islands; sago starch porridge), respectively (Table 1; Fig. 2) [25, 33]. The myriad culinary influences on ILDs are evidences for the fact that Islam does not prohibit any kind of acculturation (including in culinary tradition) as long as they follow the Islamic law (Sharia) [3, 4]. Figure 2 shows that ILDs discovered in Riau, Jakarta, East Java, North Sumatra and South Sulawesi have diverse culinary influences. It is suggested that Malacca strait area (including Riau) is geographically a confluence of many diverse cultures (Chinese, Indian, Arab, Malay and even Western cultures) which have long created a diversity in culinary tradition in the area [52, 60]. The similar culinary diversity is also discovered in Singaporean and Malaysian cuisines as both countries (Singapore and Malaysia) are located at the same region (Malacca strait) [60]. Meanwhile, the regions like Jakarta, East Java, North Sumatra and South Sulawesi have conurbations like Jakarta metropolitan areas, greater Surabaya, greater Medan and greater Makassar, respectively; which are geographically a cultural junction of many different cultures. Historically, those areas were also an ancient port which has enabled a cultural fusion between native, Chinese, Indian, Arab, and European cultures since centuries ago. The conditions have also created a culinary diversity in the regions, including ILDs diversity [3, 54, 56].

The ILDs are mostly dominated by rice cakes (31 dishes), curries (26 dishes), stews (18 dishes), and cookies (18 dishes) (Table 1; Fig. 2). Rice cakes, curries, and stews are widely distributed in almost all Indonesian regions (Table 1; Fig. 2). Some fusion dishes combining rice cake and curry are served during lebaran—for example, topak lodeh, lontong sayur (West Sumatra; Minangkabau-styled vegetables curry served with lontong), lontong Medan (North Sumatra; Medanese-styled vegetable curry served with lontong), and ketupat kandangan (South Kalimantan; ketupat served with curry) (Table 1; Fig. 1O; Fig. 2) [4, 22, 26, 61]. The examples of stews served during lebaran include lempah kulat pelawan (Bangka Belitung; mushroom [Heimioporus sp] stew), semur daging (Jakarta; sweetened beef stew), and telur petis (East Java; boiled eggs stewed in shrimp sauce) (Table 1; Fig. 2) [19, 22, 34]. On the other hand, cookies like kue bangkit (Riau; rising sago cookie), kue satu (Jakarta; mung bean cookie), and kue kembang goyang (Jakarta; deep-fried flower shaped rice cookie) are mostly found in parts of Sumatra and Java (Table 1; Fig. 2) [62, 63]. However, some cookies like kue kacang (Nationwide; peanut cookie), kue semprit (Nationwide; spurting cookie), kue putri salju, and kue kuping gajah (Nationwide; Indonesian-styled rolled cookie) are ubiquitously served during the Eid al-Fitr (Table 1; Fig. 2) [22, 55, 62].

Consumption of Indonesia Lebaran dishes and its potential health effects

In the fasting month of Ramadhan, all Muslims are encouraged to avoid eating and drinking from dawn to dusk (In Indonesia, the average period of fasting is about 13 h) for nearly a month. During this period, the human body is intentionally conditioned to starve so that the digestive system does not work heavily. Digestive enzymes only degrade a relatively smaller portion of meals, especially meals consumed during suhoor (pre-dawn meal) and iftar (the fast-breaking), rather than like the normal days. Fat deposits and blood sugars also decrease drastically during fasting, resulting in an effective weight control [86, 87]. As the fasting month ends, an initial adaptation is required to re-condition the function of the digestive system. On the one hand, appetite regeneration and nourishment are quite essential to prevent anorexia and deliver particular nutrition, respectively [88]. On the other hand, over-consumption of large quantity of high calorie diets after the fasting month (or in the Eid time) can consequently cause several digestive system problems (like constipation, side stitch, over-satiation, etc.), diabetes and obesity [9, 87].

The sense and instinct of the creators of rice cakes (including ketupat) were genius and incredible as the dishes can fortuitously overcome the physiological problems due to consumption behavior after fasting [4]. The practice has been inherited over centuries as local wisdom. A serving of 100 g of ketupat requires 40 g of rice, which provides 94.6 kcal [89]. Meanwhile, the serving of steamed rice in the same quantity requires a 1.5 times higher quantity of rice, which provides about 346 kcal [90]. Thus, the consumption of rice cake dishes can relieve the work of the digestive system and also prevent obesity, as the system only digests a relatively less quantity of food that produces a lower calorie [87].

Additionally, the serving of curries, stews, and cookies as a lebaran (Eid al-Fitr) food can provide sufficient quantity of fats, proteins, and sugars for body nourishment [91]. The requirement of fibers and vitamins is provided by salad dishes and fruit cocktails, for example, rujak cuka (West Java; mixed vegetables with vinegar dressing), selat Solo (Central Java; Javanese-styled boiled vegetables and beef served with mayonnaise), es blewah (Nationwide; cantaloupe [Curcubita melo var. cantalupensis] Ice), and es kolang-kaling (Nationwide; Arenga pinnata fruit cocktail ice), which can prevent the digestive system disorders and activate metabolism (Table 1; Fig. 2) [22, 30, 55, 81, 92]. Furthermore, numerous fermented products served during lebaran can potentially assist digestion, including tempoyak (Jambi; fermented durian), tape ketan (Nationwide; fermented glutinous rice), poteng jeje’ tujak (Lombok region of West Nusa Tenggara, Lomboknese-styled glutinous rice cake and fermented glutinous rice), and timbu-dahi (Dompu region of West Nusa Tenggara; Dompunese-styled glutinous rice cake and fermented glutinous rice) (Table 1; Fig. 1P; Fig. 2) [17, 66, 79]. The naturally produced alcohol, by yeasts, in the fermented products is considered halal (in good condition or allowed) in Islamic dietary law, as long as not intentionally fermented for alcoholic beverage production purposes (no additional production process like pressing, aging, distillation and pasteurization), in which the alcohol content of the dishes is only below 4% [93]. The lower amount of alcohol can metabolically aid the digestive system in dissolving fats. Moreover, probiotic bacteria in those fermented products can also assist the work of the digestive system by secreting several digestive enzymes such as amylases, proteases, lipases, etc. [94]. The consumption of fermented foods during the Eid has also been practiced in other culture, for example the consumption of Laxoox/Canjeero (Somali traditional flatbread) and Hulu-Mur (Sudanese sorghum-based fermented beverage) [95, 96]. In addition, the six days fasting extension, volitionally observed in the Shawwal month, can alternatively be a brilliant notion to normalize and adapt the digestive system before commencing the normal days as well as an attempt to reduce higher concentrations of blood sugars, cholesterol, triglycerides, and uric acid due to over-consumption during the Eid period [9, 87, 88].

Business aspects of Indonesia Lebaran dishes

In recent days, people tend to passionately pursue particular career pathways that industriously encourage them to be professional and focused at work. Consequently, current societies tend to apply a simple living lifestyle, including simplicity in food serving. The serving of food for holidays such as Eid al-Fitr/lebaran is almost arduously problematical for several families with an industrialized lifestyle. Therefore, this condition delivers an opportunity for food services and catering industries to provide special food [10, 97]. The food menu usually offered during lebaran includes ketupat, opor ayam, sambal goreng ati, sayur jipang, sambal kentang, semur daging, etc., priced up to Rp 500.000,00 (up to US$ 33) for 5 persons (Table 1; Fig. 2) [97]. Sometimes, catering industries also offer any traditional specialties on the menu at a particular price such as rendang (West Sumatra, dried spicy beef curry), kentang mustofa (West Java, deep-fried sliced potato stewed in chili sauce), rawon (East Java, beef and cattle offal stew spiced with Pangium edule) and soto Banjar (South Kalimantan, Banjarese-styled soup) (Table 1; Fig. 2) [98]. Cantering industries also offer and provide menus and abundant quantity of foods for large dining (such as for event like open house) during lebaran [97]. In the socio-cultural dimension, the serving of myriad traditional dishes by catering industries during lebaran can also aid in introducing and promoting particular traditional foods from particular regions to other people in different regions. Thus, it enables a cross-cultural exchange between regions [4, 6, 8]. Furthermore, this annual business is quite profitable as the total revenue is nationally estimated to reach up to US$ 348 billion as of 2023, with an expected annual growth of 20 – 30% (especially after Covid-19 pandemics) [97, 99]. Moreover, this business also affects another economic sector such as delivery services (Go-Food, Grab-Food, Shopee-Food, etc.), agriculture (farms, husbandries, etc.), eating utensils and packaging industries [97].

Conclusions

To conclude, the 165 ILDs are usually served in many unique annual traditions during the Eid al-Fitr period and widely distributed in 26 provinces. The dishes are dominated by rice cakes (31 dishes), curries (26 dishes), stews (18 dishes) and cookies (18 dishes), showing the influences of local and foreign culinary traditions (Indian, Arabian, Chinese, Polynesian and Western-European cuisines) in the Indonesian Muslim cultural life. Furthermore, the foods provide nutrition (carbohydrates, fibers, proteins and fats) and other particular functions which can aid the digestive system. Moreover, the business of ILDs preparation can generate the national total revenue up to US$ 348 billion by 2023, with an annual growth of 20–30%.

The cultural wealth, in the form of 165 ILDs and lebaran traditions, are a national heritage in which Indonesian government must be concerned. Policies and laws related to cultural heritage security, especially for 165 ILDs and lebaran traditions, should be proposed and implemented in order to conserve those heritages. To inherit the knowledge related to ILDs preparations to the next generations, the Indonesian government must incorporate those cultural products into the Indonesian educational curriculum. Meanwhile, in the term of entrepreneurship, the results of this study can be an inspiration for the installation of ILDs preparation businesses in Indonesia for years onwards since it is highly profitable. Furthermore, the study only focuses on history, cultural traditions, geographical distribution, health and economic benefits of the preparation ILDs in general. Thus, the research still widely opens opportunities for further study, especially related to elucidation of specific ILD preparation and also lebaran tradition (involving the preparation of specific ILD).